Assignment on
Unit -3: Strategies of teaching and interaction teaching
( Democratic strategies )
Submitted to,
DR.K.Chellmani
School of Education
Pondicherry University
Submitted by,
T .Suganthi
M.Ed.,(2012-13)
School of Education
Pondicherry University
Content
v Introduction
v Democratic strategies
v Types of democratic strategies
· Discussion
· Discovery
· Heurism
· Project
· Brainstorming
· Role play
v Conclusion
v References
v Questions related to that
Introduction
Teaching is an art form all its own. It has order, function, purpose, meaning, and, like art, evolves and takes shape within the imagination and mind of the teacher. At the disposal of the teacher are many ways or strategies that can be utilized to ensure that those being taught are truly and fully comprehending and utilizing any and all knowledge accumulated and assimilated. To list a few, there are strategies such as reciprocal teaching, reciprocal questioning, problem- or project-based learning, tutoring, or debating/discussion.
DISCUSION IS METHOD OF TEACHING
The strategy that will be focused upon is discussion. Different people and even experts will have differing definitions of what exactly is discussion. A very concise, yet highly intelligent definition has been given for the word and teaching strategy known as Discussion.
DEFINITIONS
According to Larson (1997), Wileen & White (1991) stated that it (discussion) is characterized as a structured conversation among participants who present, examine, compare and understand similar and diverse ideas about an issue.
Meaning of discussion
1. Conversation or debate concerning a particular topic.
2. Text giving further detail on a subject.
A discussion is an oral exploration of a topic, object, concept or experience. All learners need frequent opportunities to generate and share their questions and ideas in small and whole class settings. Teachers who encourage and accept students' questions and comments without judgement and clarify understandings by paraphrasing difficult terms stimulate the exchange of ideas.
Method
Open-ended Discussions:
· Open-ended discussions begin with a sincere question (to which there is no one correct or concise answer) posed by teacher or student.
· All listeners consider the question.
· Incorporate pauses after students' responses to encourage extended or different responses.
· Clarify students' responses when necessary.
· Establish student-student dialogues during the discussion whenever possible.
· Respect students' questions and their responses.
· Model the role of sensitive listener, collaborator, mediator, prompter, learning partner and questioner.
Guided Discussions:
· Guided discussions begin with teacher-posed questions that promote the exploration of a particular theme, topic or issue.
· Through discussion, students should achieve a deeper understanding of the topic.
· After some time is spent on teacher-directed questioning, students should be encouraged to facilitate discussions by continuing to formulate and pose questions appropriate to the topic of study.
Talking Stick Circles or Discussions:
· Talking stick circles or discussions can be used to encourage students to reflect on experiences or discuss feelings.
· The students gather in a circle.
· The participant holding an assigned object or the talking stick has the option of speaking while other circle participants listen.
· Once speakers have shared their comments and opinions, they pass the stick or object to the person next to them.
· Talking circles can be used with a large group or small groups, or with inner-outer circle formations.
· Inner-outer circle participants gather in two circles.
· The students in the outer circle listen to the discussion taking place in the inner circle, then exchange places and become active participants in the inner circle
· Assessment and Evaluation Considerations
• Observe students' participation and conduct in large and small group discussions.
• Note which students rarely or never ask questions.
• Note the settings, topics, concepts or objects which stimulate the most discussion.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF DISCUSSION METHOD
The discussion method is one in which the students and the instructor exchange their ideas in order to get a better understanding of a topic. It can be a whole period or be a part of a lesson. The discussion method, when used properly, is a good way to stimulate thinking on the part of the student. It can be used to advantage when the students have a background knowledge of the subject being discussed. The instructor should prompt everyone to take part, thus allowing the students the opportunity to learn from everyone in the group. The discussion method is interaction centered and can be teacher or student centered, and can be held in either a large or small group. Interaction techniques capitalize on the human desire to talk and share one’s thoughts. Personal activity permits greater involvement in the lesson.
Values of the Discussion Method
Teaching by discussion utilizes one of the best principles of the learning process, namely, the involvement of students in active participation in the learning experience. A good discussion will help students express themselves verbally, crystalize their thinking in conjunction with the thinking of their peers, and develop a tolerance for those with whom they may disagree.
Management research teaches us that people change most rapidly and completely in proportion to the amount of interaction which they have with other people. People who tend to isolate themselves physically or mentally will become set in their ways and resist innovation in their lives or thought patterns. On the other hand, people who engage in open exchange of ideas with others will learn both the existence and validity of other points of view and will more readily moderate, or perhaps even drastically change, their own ideas.
Teaching by discussion is a motivational technique which encourages a student to think through concepts which have been hazy. Wrong conclusions may be corrected through the influence of the group rather than the unilateral actions of the teacher. Problem-solving techniques are learned which can be applied not only in the search for knowledge, but in all aspects of life. Creative thinking may also be stimulated.
A discussion setting also provides an atmosphere which can enhance group rapport and camaraderie. The informality of the situation (when properly conducted) allows group members to sense how other people feel, and identification with the group begins to emerge. In a good discussion session, one soon learns that the questions which have been bothering him are not unique but are problems faced by many of his friends. The humanness and concern of the teacher comes through much more clearly in a discussion than it can in a lecture.
Steps for Effective Discussion Teaching
Planning a guided discussion is basically the same as planning a lecture. The instructor will find the following suggestions helpful in planning a discussion lesson. Note that these same suggestions include many that are appropriate for planning cooperative learning.
Select a topic the students can profitably discuss.
Unless the students have some knowledge to exchange with each other, they cannot reach the desired learning outcomes by the discussion method. If necessary, make assignments that will give the students an adequate background for discussing the lesson topic.
Establish a specific lesson objective with desired learning outcomes
Through discussion, the students develop an understanding of the subject by sharing knowledge, experiences, and backgrounds. Consequently, the objective normally is stated at the understanding level of learning. The desired learning outcomes should stem from the objective.
Conduct adequate research to become familiar with the topic.
While researching, the instructor should always be alert for ideas on the best way to tailor a lesson for a particular group of students. Similarly, the instructor can prepare the pre-discussion assignment more effectively while conducting research for the classroom period. During this research process, the instructor should also earmark reading material that appears to be especially appropriate as back- ground material for students. Such material should be well organized and based on fundamentals.
Organize the main and subordinate points of the lesson in a logical sequence. The guided discussion has three main parts-introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
The introduction consists of three elements-attention, motivation, and overview. In the discussion, the instructor should be certain that the main points discussed build logically with the objective. The conclusion consists of the summary, reactivation, and closure. By organizing in this manner, the instructor phrases the questions to help the students obtain a firm grasp of the subject matter and to minimize the possibility of a rambling discussion.
PURPOSE
As mentioned before, discussion can be a very powerful tool for learning. Experts from many different fields in education agree that discussion, when conducted properly, is very effective as a teaching strategy. The purposes of discussion method are:
o to help students make sense of the world
o to stimulate thought, wonder, explanation, reflection and recall
o to provide opportunities for students to clarify and expand their ideas and those of others
o to promote positive group interaction and conversation
o to demonstrate questioning techniques
o To help the participants reach a more critically informed understanding about the topic or topics under consideration.
o Enhance participants self-awareness and their capacity for self-critique.
o To foster an appreciation among participants for the diversity of opinions that invariably emerges when view points are exchanged openly and honestly.
o To act as a catalyst to helping people take information action in the world.
Advantages of the Discussion Method
· Expands the cognitive and affective domains of students.
· Can be used to solve problems and develop interest in the topic.
· Emphasizes main teaching points.
· Utilizes student knowledge and ideas.
· Results in more permanent learning because of the high degree of student involvement.
· Determine student understanding and progress.
· Everyone has a chance to get involved.
· Teaches how to come to an agreement within a group without arguing.
· Permits students are teacher to get acquainted.
· Emphasis on Learning instead of Teaching,
· Participation by Everybody.
· Development of Democratic way of Thinking.
· Training in Reflective Thinking.
· Training in Self-expression.
· Spirit of Tolerance is inculcated.
· Learning is made Interesting.
And some advantages
o More participation of students.
o Students listen to other’s opinion & express their opinion.
o Discuss with teachers the points that were missed during discussion.
o Students learn on their own & find out key points.
o Students exchange their ideas.
o Students get point of view of all and not only those who always speak.
o After discussion when students give their presentation, teacher corrects their mistakes.
o Students can make their own notes.
o The learning is more effective.
o They don’t have to rely on rote learning.
o Develops creativity among students.
o It evokes thinking among students.
o Students have time for preparation of topic.
o Students should have material and knowledge before discussion.
Limitations
1. All types of topics cannot be taught by Discussion Method.
2. This method cannot be used for teaching small children.
3. The students may not follow the rules of discussion.
4. Some students may not take part while others may try to dominate.
5. The teacher may not be able to guide and provide true leadership in the discussion.
6. Tend to get off topic if the instructor doesn’t continually redirect ideas.
7. More informed and eager pupils tend to monopolize the discussion.
8. Not suitable for presenting information for the first time.
9. Not very effective in describing procedures or breakdown of a component.
10. Content is limited and the method is time consuming.
11. It restricts the size of groups.
12. The larger the groups the more difficult it is to guide the discussion.
13. Knowledge of the group.
Discovery method of teaching
The discovery method is a teaching technique that encourages students to take a more active role in their learning process by answering a series of questions or solving problems designed to introduce a general concept. In this teaching approach, the instructor guides the student’s thought process by posing a series of questions whose responses would lead to the understanding of a concept before it is explicitly stated. “Children act as detectives as they solve concept-attainment activities in stimulating learning environments. In doing so, they place a newly introduced object in a category that they have previously discovered or identified.” This teaching method is believed to increase retention of material because the student organizes the new information and integrates it with information that has already been stored.
Definition
Discovery learning refers to various instructional design models that engages students in learning through discovery. Usually the pedagogical aims are threefold: (1) Promote "deep" learning, (2) Promote meta-cognitive skills (develop problem-solving skills, creativity, etc.), (3) Promote student engagement.
According to Judith Conway's Educational Technology's Effect on Models of Instruction: “ Jerome Bruner was influential in defining Discovery Learning. It uses Cognitive psychology as a base. Discovery learning is "an approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment-by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments" (Ormrod, 1995, p. 442) The idea is that students are more likely to remember concepts they discover on their own. Teachers have found that discovery learning is most successful when students have prerequisite knowledge and undergo some structured experiences.” (Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p 68).
Discovery learning emphasises what Bruner (1960, 1966) calls a hypothetical mode of teaching/learning as opposed to a more didactic mode. Discovery learning encourages students to ask questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to deduce general principles from practical examples or experience.
Theory and models of discovery learning
Discovery learning can be traced back to authors like Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Dewey. In particular Dewey's emphasis on "experience" is in vogue again.
In research on scientific discovery learning, it has been found that in order for discovery of learning to be successful, learners need to posses a number of discovery skills (De Jong & Van Joolingen, in press), including hypothesis generation, experiment design, prediction, and data analysis. In addition, regulative skills like planning and monitoring are needed for successful discovery learning (Njoo & De Jong, 1993). Apart from being supportive for learning about the domain at hand, these skills are usually also seen as a learning goal in itself, as they are needed in a complex information society. Lack of these skills can result in ineffective discovery behavior, like designing inconclusive experiments, confirmation bias and drawing incorrect conclusions from data. In its turn, ineffective discovery behavior does not contribute to creating new knowledge in the mind of the learner.
Therefore one must try to support discovery learning processes, however with the risk of disrupting the very nature process that should engage the learner in autonomous knowledge construction.
Models of discovery learning
we should add a sort of common blueprint here maybe
Collaborative discovery learning
Discovery learning with microworlds
Experiental learning (to some extent)
Guided discovery learning
Incidental learning
Learning by exploring (exploratory learning)
Simulation-based learning
Case-based learning
Problem-based learning
inquiry-based learning
Advantages
The discovery learning literature often claims the following advantages:
· Supports active engagement of the learner in the learning process
· Fosters curiosity
· Enables the development of life long learning skills
· Personalizes the learning experience
· Highly motivating as it allows individuals the opportunity to experiment and discover something for themselves
· Builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding
· Develops a sense of independence and autonomy
· Make them responsible for their own mistakes and results
· Learning as most adults learn on the job and in real life situations
· A reason to record their procedure and discoveries - such as not repeating mistakes, a way to analyze what happened, and a way to record a victorious discovery
· Develops problem solving and creative skills
· Finds new and interesting avenues of information and learning - such as gravy made with too much cornstarch can become a molding medium
· These sorts of arguments can be regrouped in two broad categories
· Development of meta cognitive skills (including some higher level cognitive strategies) useful in lifelong learning.
· Motivation
· Supports active engagement of the learner in the learning process
· Fosters curiousity
· Enables the development of life long learning skills
· Personalises the learning experience
· Highly motivating as it allows individuals the opportunity to experimentand discover something for themselves
· Builds on learner's prior knowledge and understanding.
Disadvantages
Most researchers would argue that pure discovery learning as a general and global teaching strategy for beginning and intermediary learners doesn't work. The debate on how much guiding is needed is somewhat open. See Kirschner et al. (2006) for a good overview (or Mayer, 2004; Feldon) and also Merrill's first principles of instruction model that does promote unguided problem-based learning at thefinal stages of an instructional design.
Steps in discovery method
· Select an activity.
To begin pick an activity that is relatively short so that follow-up attempts are easier to predict and plan for. Select a subject with which you are personally familiar and comfortable. Also in the beginning it is often best to choose an activity that does not have just one correct answer. Role-playing, creating sculptures, observing characteristics of objects, or searching for or classifying similar items all work well.
· Gather materials.
Remember to have enough materials for each learner to repeat the activity at least once.
· Stay focused
Avoid learning tangents that may be interesting but will keep the learner from finishing the project, unless they are truly of great curiosity and value. Instead take notes concerning the new interest to follow-up on once the initial activity is completed.
· Use caution
While the idea of discovery learning is for the instructor to step back and observe allowing the child to work independently, be sure that safety is observed. Activities such as cooking and cutting should always be supervised by an adult and experimenting with magnets is nice unless an important video or cassette tape is ruined.
· Plan extra time
Understand that children working on their own will most likely take longer than they would with an adult moving them from step to step. Also be sure to plan time for repeated activities in case there is a failure or other reason to repeat the activity.
· Record process and results
Include in the activity a requirement for older children to record their procedure and results. For young children guide, assist, or model record keeping.
· Discuss and review
After and activity is completed and before it is repeated a second time (if needed), discuss the activity and its outcome with the child. Use the records which were kept to assist during this step. Once the activity has been analyzed, record any observations or mistakes.
· Try again
Have the child repeat the activity if necessary. Encourage her to take into account what was done and the discussion that occurred. Allow her to use any records that were kept to assist her in successfully completing the activity. Give assistance and guidance as necessary.
· Plan for more discovery learning activities
Think over how this activity worked for the child. As you plan more discovery activities take the answers to these questions into consideration. What went well? What could have gone better? How can any problem areas be corrected or alleviated?
ROLE-PLAY METHOD OF TEACHING
Role-play is an excellent technique for building clinical skills in the safety of the small group setting. It is particularly effective for practicing communication skills. Role-plays can be based on previously scripted written scenarios or on a real case that may have been presented to the group. Clear instructions must to be given regarding the nature of the roles, timing, and specific objectives. The role-play may be enacted in groups of two, with one student playing the “physician” and another playing the “patient.” Role-play can also take place in groups of three, with an observer added to the group. In role playing, students act out characters in a predefined "situation".
Definition
Role-playing refers to the changing of one's behaviour to assume a role, either unconsciously to fill a social role, or consciously to act out an adopted role. While the Oxford English Dictionary offers a definition of role-playing as "the changing of one's behaviour to fulfill a social role", in the field of psychology, the term is used more loosely in four senses:
•To refer to the playing of roles generally such as in a theatre, or educational setting;
•To refer to taking a role of an existing character or person and acting it out with a partner taking someone else's role, often involving different genres of practice;
•To refer to a wide range of games including role-playing video game, play-by-mail games and more;
•To refer specifically to role-playing games.
Steps
Role playing activities can be divided into four stages (Cherif & Somervill, 1998):
1. Preparation and explanation of the activity by the teacher
2. Student preparation of the activity3. The role-playing
4. The discussion or debriefing after the role-play activity
Purpose of role play method of teaching
Role playing allows students to take risk-free positions by acting out characters in hypothetical situations. It can help them understand the range of concerns, values, and positions held by other people. Role playing is an enlightening and interesting way to help students see a problem from another perspective.
Amusement
Many children participate in a form of role-playing known as make believe, wherein they adopt certain roles such as doctor and act out those roles in character. Sometimes make believe adopts an oppositional nature, resulting in games such as cops and robbers.
Entertainment
Historical re-enactment has been practised by adults for millennia. The ancient Romans, Han Chinese, and medieval Europeans all enjoyed occasionally organising events in which everyone pretended to be from an earlier age, and entertainment appears to have been the primary purpose of these activities. Within the 20th century historical re-enactment has often been pursued as a hobby.
Advantages
• Interesting method
• Creative thinking is encouraged.
• Students think beyond their knowledge.
• Students enjoy the situation
• Active learning
• Easy to learn The role-play method allows learners to practice clinical skills, particularly communication skills, in a safe environment without the expense of paying for a Standardized Patient. The faculty member can directly observe the skills of multiple students during a single session. By playing the role of the patient, the student can get a better understanding of the patient’s point of view. The biggest limitation of role-play is the almost universal hesitance of students (and sometimes faculty) to role-play
In role playing, students act out characters in a predefined "situation".
Disadvantages
• Puts pressure on learner to perform, which can create embarrassment and even resistance
• Depends heavily on learner’s imagination and willingness to participate
• Can engender strong emotions related to past experiences, empathy, etc.
• Can lack focus unless wellplanned, orchestrated, and monitored
• Can reinforce ineffective behaviors/strategies if performance is not observed by knowledgeable person who provides appropriate feedback
• Can be unpredictable in terms of outcomes
• Can be time-consuming
HEURISTIC METHOD
Heuristic refers to experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery. Where the exhaustive search is impractical, heuristic methods are used to speed up the process of finding a satisfactory solution; mental short cuts to ease the cognitive load of making a decision. Examples of this method include using a rule of thumb, an educated guess, an intuitive judgment, or common sense. In more precise terms, heuristics are strategies using readily accessible, though loosely applicable, information to control problem solving in human beings and machines.
Heuristic Method of Teaching Science:
Experts are of the view that Heuristic has been derived from a Greek word Heuriskin, which implies to discover. The method known as Heuristic method was discovered on the idea that by placing a student in the position of a discoverer, he would learn much more than being merely told about things. The credit of discovering this method goes to the Professor Armstrong, who was of the view that information of scientific facts and concepts cannot be imparted properly through lectures or through written matters in the form of text books. He was of the opinion that students should be given opportunity to gather scientific information on their own.It was on the basis of his this ideas that he discovered the method of Heuristic. This method of teaching aims at primarily to develop scientific outlook among the students, which is considered to be one of the main objective of science teaching by majority of experts. When to Use:
Thus from the above discussion it is clear that this method should be used only when the number of students getting education in the class is less and the teacher is highly qualified and able to keep control over the actions or activities performed by various students at a time. Not only this, there should be proper provision of various equipments and apparatuses in the school, as without them, it is not possible for the students to play active role in learning process.
Theorized psychological heuristics
•Anchoring and adjustment
Describes the common human tendency to rely too heavily on the first piece of information offered (the "anchor") when making decisions.
•Availability heuristic
A mental shortcut that occurs when people make judgments about the probability of events by the ease with which examples come to mind.
Principles Underlying the Heuristic Method of teaching
The Heuristic Method is based on the sound psychological principles. The chief principles may be stated as:
(a) The Principle of Activity.
The method is based on the principle of activity or learning by doing. The activity involved in the method is self-activity. This will help the pupil to discover things for himself.
(b) The Principle of Laws of Learning.
Problems are to be given according to age and ability of the learners. This refers to the Law of Readiness. The method gives importance to activity on the part of the educand and this refers to the Law of Exercise. When the pupils are led to derive facts for themselves as a result of their own activity, they are made to work in accordance with the Law of Effect.
(c) The Principle of Logical Thinking.
The method involves inductive and deductive processes of logical thinking. This way the child is led to establish facts through a number of examples, experiments etc.
(d) The Principles of Purposeful Experience.
Purposeful, self-experience is the spirit behind the method. The pupils get an insight into what they are doing. They develop a critical attitude and the like. "Teaching by the Heuristic Method throws the whole weight of the teaching process on to the process of growth of the mind rather than on the storing of knowledge."
STEPS
Five steps involved in the methods are:-
(a)Presentation of the problem
(b) Giving information about material and techniques helpful in solving the problem.
(c) Hypothesis formulation by the students themselves.
(d) Data collection for testing of the hypothesis.
(e) Testing the hypothesis-accepting the true hypothesis and rejecting the falls hypothesis.
(i) Presenting the problem.
The teacher poses the problem on which the pupils are called upon to work. It is better if the problem is suggested by the pupils themselves. Such a problem will demand activity rather than receptivity, discovery rather than dogma.
(ii) Advance tips.
The teacher may, if he thinks desirable, give the pupils a few guidelines of working on the problem.
(iii) The children at work.
Once the problem is in hand, children are ready to work. They now make independent enquiries, consult relevant books, indulge in mental activity, ask questions and discuss among themselves whenever they feel some doubt.
(iv) Evaluation.
There may follow self-evaluation by pupils, critical comments may also be given. The pupils' judgement need to be supplemented by the healthy comments of the teacher.
(v) Application.
The facts collected may be applied as far as possible. Thus the pupils will be able to test the validity of their findings. This will also give the child confidence in his self-activity.
"Essentially, therefore, the Heuristic Method is intended to provide a training in method. Knowledge is a secondary consideration altogether. The method is formative rather than informational. Such training, if properly carried out, does cultivate painstaking and observant habits and encourages intelligent and independent reasoning. It does bring home to boys clear notions of the nature of experimental evidence, and boys do learn that answers to questions can often be obtained from experiments they can work for themselves."
PROCEDURES
Teachers should help in formulating hypothesis. They should help in gathering the resources. Doubts should be removed. Students should be given chance to go further on the basis of trial and error, theory of learning.
SUGGESTIONS
Knowledge through self study and self learning.Learning through investigation an research. There by developing scientific attitudes. Increase self confidence of the students. Motivates students to accept newer and newer challenges. Highest level of cognitive objectives can be achieved.
APPLICATION
Useful in teaching mathematics and science
ADVANTAGES
Used in social science to clarify facts and concepts unlike heuristic method used in science to formulate or testify laws and principles. Facts and concepts are explained in an objective manner unlike heuristic method where subject matter is comprehended subjectively.
Discovery is related to past events while heurism is concerned with phenomena at present. E.g. “Courses of Aurangzeb’s failure in south India” is a discovery and “Causes of law productivity of agriculture lands in India is a heuristic method.
1. Through trial and error process, students develop scientific attitude.
2. Pupils become self-dependent, self-reliant, and self-confident through self-activity.
3. Individual attention is possible to strengthen the relation.
4. Habits of hard work and honesty are encouraged.
5. Facts learnt are retained for a longer time as they are made through self-effort.
6. It prepares the child for life.
7. Home work problem is solved and the ability of the students is judged in the class.
8. 'Learning by doing' maxim is completely followed in this method.
Disadvantages of the Method
1. Much lies upon the shoulders of the young students. So we expect much out of them.
2. It is a slow process and heavy syllabi cannot be covered smoothly in due course of time.
3. Adept teachers are required to write and implement the method.
4. The knowledge suffers because much time is utilized in the investigations.
5. Small number of students is required in a class for individual care which is not possible in India.
6. It is a costly method.
7. Much skill is needed in grading the problems.
PROJECT METHOD
Student follows a collective approach in project method unlike individual problem solving as in Heuristic method. The problem given in the form of project is real while the problem of heurism may be real as well as imaginary. The approach of the project is productive, here something useful is created. Unlike heurism which is analytical.
TYPES OF PROJECT
Constructive project
Pupils work physically in or outside the class like writing letters, essays on given topics, preparing fields for games , playing drama etc .Aesthetic project Appreciation powers of students are developed. Presentation of music programmes, decorating a hall, beautification of lawn etc.
Problematic project.
Students learn solutions of life- related problems such as studying the effect of balance diet on health, advantages of physical exercise on body fitness, Causes of family disputes and their solution etc.Drill project. Working capabilities and automation of students are increased. Filling in the map, coloring the arts and pictures, solving mathematical sums etc.
PRINCIPLES OF PROJECT METHOD
• Principles of purpose
• Principles of utility
• Principles of freedom
• Principles of activity
• Principles of reality
• Principles of prior planning
Creating situation:- Teacher creating situation in the class that student propose themselves to work on the project .High level of motivation is found in students. Teacher tells them the method and procedure of the project.2. Selection of the project:-
Six principles as mentioned above are taken into consideration.
Teacher helps the student to select the project on the basis of their interests.
STEPS INVOLVED
Planning:-
Teacher discusses various points of the project with the students. Students take part on discussion.
After discussion, teacher writes down the whole programmmes of action step wise on the black board. Grouping is also done.
Execution:-
Students first upon select relevant facts, information and material and each groups works on the project separately and complete it within time limit.
Evaluation:-
When project gets completed ,it is first criticized and evaluated by the students themselves within the group and when fully satisfied report to the teacher.
Reporting:-
Students write each and every steps of the project that is how they did. The report may submit to the teacher.
ADVANTAGES
Related to real life situation
Students learn how to solve real life problems in life.
Work experience-Students get real experience of working by their projects and the learning which is associated with doing is more stable and meaningful.
Inculcation of democratic values-They learn coopration, tolerance, mutual acceptance.
A boon for weak students-It is a boon since students work in group collectively.
• Opportunity to learn skills that are important for jobs.
• Provides an opportunity for individuals to use their hands.
• Completion of the project gives individuals an accomplishment.
• Stimulates an interest in Agricultural Mechanics.
• Adds variety to a program.
• Provides immediate results.
Disadvantages
This method takes a lot of time to plan and execute a single project. As the time available with the teacher is limited in the schools, thus they find it difficult to make use of this method in their class.
It is not possible to design different projects for different topics and it is also not possible to cover all the topics or content in a single project. Thus, this method becomes impractical in nature.
For proper execution of a project, large number of financial resources are required, which seems difficult to arrange in our nation as we have to face shortage of resources in every sphere of life.
Such method can only be prove successful if the teacher is highly knowledgeable, alert and exceptionally gifted. The responsibility of teacher becomes multil-folded as right from providing situations and opportunities for the selection of projection, he provides the students with all the provisions by which they can execute the project successfully.
Systematic and adequate learning is not provided by this method, as it is a method of incidental learning. Through this method, students learn only what is required by them in relation to the completion of the projects. Thus, through this process, it is not possible to treat the curricular areas in systematic and orderly manner.
Generally it is found that teachers do not possess much information regarding the manner in which this method should be used as a result of which they hesitate from using this method, as a result of which, it's utility remains more or less limited to negligible extent.
When to Use:
As this method has various serious limitations, because of which it is not possible to use this method exclusively for science teaching. Teacher feels the need to make use of other methods of teaching also along with this method. In other words, this method can be used as a supplement for the proper utilisation of usual classroom teaching which is understand by any good teaching method.
Some experts consider this method not as a method of teaching, but as a method of making use of knowledge and acquired skills. While keeping in mind such points, it can be said that this method is suitable for elementary classes and should be used when the number of students in the class are less. Through this method, nature study can be best taught to the students.
For any kind of investigation, proper planning and organisation works should be conducted by the teacher and students should be grouped in groups, of limited size. A leader should be assigned of the groups, who should be held liable for workings of all the students of the group. Through this provision, teacher can ensure high level of success of this method.
BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming is a large or small group activity which encourages children to focus on a topic and contribute to the free flow of ideas. The teacher may begin by posing a question or a problem, or by introducing a topic. Students then express possible answers, relevant words and ideas. Contributions are accepted without criticism or judgement.
DEFINITION
Brainstorming is a group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its member(s). The term was popularized by Alex Faickney Osborn in the 1953 book Applied Imagination. Osborn claimed that brainstorming was more effective than individuals working alone in generating ideas, although more recent research has questioned this conclusion. Today, the term is used as a catch all for all group ideationsessions.
Origin
Advertising executive Alex F. Osborn began developing methods for creative problem solving in 1939. He was frustrated by employees’ inability to develop creative ideas individually for ad campaigns. In response, he began hosting group-thinking sessions and discovered a significant improvement in the quality and quantity of ideas produced by employees. Osborn outlined the method in his 1953 bookApplied Imagination.
Applications
Osborn notes that brainstorming should address a specific question; he held that sessions addressing multiple questions were inefficient.
Further, the problem must require the generation of ideas rather than judgment; he uses examples such as generating possible names for a product as proper brainstorming material, whereas analytical judgments such as whether or not to marry do not have any need for brainstorming.[2]
Brainstorming groups
Osborn envisioned groups of around 12 participants, including both experts and novices. Participants are encouraged to provide wild and unexpected answers. Ideas receive no criticism or discussion. The group simply provides ideas that might lead to a solution and apply no analytical judgement as to the feasibility. The judgements are reserved for a later date.
TYPES
Nominal group technique
The nominal group technique is a type of brainstorming that encourages all participants to have an equal say in the process. It is also used to generate a ranked list of ideas.
Group passing technique
Each person in a circular group writes down one idea, and then passes the piece of paper to the next person, who adds some thoughts. This continues until everybody gets his or her original piece of paper back. By this time, it is likely that the group will have extensively elaborated on each idea.
Guided brainstorming
A guided brainstorming session is time set aside to brainstorm either individually or as a collective group about a particular subject under the constraints of perspective and time. This type of brainstorming removes all cause for conflict and constrains conversations while stimulating critical and creative thinking in an engaging, balanced environment. Innovative ideas consistently emerge.
Participants are asked to adopt different mindsets for pre-defined period of time while contributing their ideas to a central mind map drawn by a pre-appointed scribe. Having examined a multi-perspective point of view, participants seemingly see the simple solutions that collectively create greater growth. Action is assigned individually.
Individual brainstorming
"Individual brainstorming" is the use of brainstorming in solitary. It typically includes such techniques as free writing, free speaking, word association, and drawing a mind map, which is a visual note taking technique in which people diagram their thoughts. Individual brainstorming is a useful method in creative writing and has been shown to be superior to traditional group brainstorming
Research has shown individual brainstorming to be more effective in idea-generation than group brainstorming.
Question brainstorming
This process involves brainstorming the questions, rather than trying to come up with immediate answers and short term solutions. Theoretically, this technique should not inhibit participation as there is no need to provide solutions. The answers to the questions form the framework for constructing future action plans. Once the list of questions is set, it may be necessary to prioritize them to reach to the best solution in an orderly way.
SUGGESITONS
This method being problem centered, it should be meaningful and related to real life situation.
All views of students are welcome and relevant views should be isolated from them later on.
The views of students will be either written or typed.
Advantages
Cognitive and affective objectives can be achieved.
Good ideas can be inculcated.
Imaginative power of students can be developed.
Purpose
•to focus students' attention on a particular topic
•to generate a quantity of ideas
•to teach acceptance and respect for individual differences
•to encourage learners to take risks in sharing their ideas and opinions
•to demonstrate to students that their knowledge and their language abilities are valued and accepted
•to introduce the practice of idea collection prior to beginning tasks such as writing or solving problems
•to provide an opportunity for students to share ideas and expand their existing knowledge by building on each other's contributions
Steps
•In a small or large group select a leader and a recorder (they may be the same person).
•Define the problem or idea to be brainstormed. Make sure everyone is clear on the topic being explored.
•Set up the rules for the session. They should include:
- letting the leader have control.
- allowing everyone to contribute.
- ensuring that no one will insult, demean, or evaluate another participant or his/her response.
- stating that no answer is wrong.
- recording each answer unless it is a repeat.
- setting a time limit and stopping when that time is up.
• Start the brainstorming. Have the leader select members of the group to share their answers. The recorder should write down all responses, if possible so everyone can see them. Make sure not to evaluate or criticize any answers until done brainstorming.
• Once you have finished brainstorming, go through the results and begin evaluating the responses. Some initial qualities to look for when examining the responses include:
- looking for any answers that are repeated or similar.
- grouping like concepts together.
- eliminating responses that definitely do not fit.
• Now that you have narrowed your list down some, discuss the remaining responses as a group.
It is important for the teacher to:
• Establish a warm, supportive environment.
• Emphasize that a quantity of ideas is the goal.
• Discourage evaluative or critical comments from peers.
• Encourage and provide opportunity for all students to participate.
• Initially emphasize the importance of listening to expressed ideas, and model printing and recording of the ideas, then read each contribution to or with the group.
Procedure
•Use this procedure to plan a classroom activity such as aresearch project, a field trip, a concert or a party.
•Display brainstormed lists of words to be used as spelling resources.
· Add to brainstormed lists regularly.
• Groups and individuals can use brainstorming to generate prewriting ideas for stories, poems and songs.
• Categorize brainstormed words, ideas and suggestions.
• Use brainstormed words and sentences for exploring sentence structures and for key vocabularies.
Assessment and Evaluation Considerations
• Observe students' ability to focus on a topic or task in a group situation.
• Note students' participation in the oral expression of ideas.
• Monitor listening behaviours. (Do students take turns speaking? Do they ask for clarifications?)
• Periodically record students' oral language strengths, weaknesses and development in their files.
· Advantages of brain storming
o More interesting
o More informative
o Gain knowledge
o Learning is effective
o More participation of students
o Students give their opinion
o Active learning
o Creative thinking is encouraged.
o Students think beyond their knowledge.
o Every one gets the chance to express their thoughts.
o Simple topics can be learnt through different angles.
o Easy to learn
Problem Solving
There are two major types of problem solving – reflective and creative. Regardless of the type of problem solving a class uses, problem solving focuses on knowing the issues, considering all possible factor and finding a solution. Because all ideas are accepted initially, problem solving allows for finding the best possible solution as opposed to the easiest solution or the first solution proposed.
Purpose
The process is used to help students think about a problem without applying their own pre-conceived ideas. Defining what the problem looks like is separated from looking at the cause of the problem to prevent premature judgment. Similarly, clarifying what makes an acceptable solution is defined before solutions are generated, preventing preconceptions from driving solutions. Some people argue that problem solving is the art of reasoning in its purest form. In the classroom, problem solving is best used to help student understand complex ethical dilemmas, think about the future or do some strategic planning.
STEPS
A FOUR-STEP PROCESS
Billstein, Libeskind and Lott have adopted these problem solving steps in their book "A Problem Solving Approach to Mathematics for Elementary School Teachers (The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co.). They are based on the problem-solving steps first outlined by George Polya in 1945.
1. UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM
2. DEVISING A PLAN
3. CARRYING OUT THE PLAN
4. LOOKING BACK
Reflective Problem Solving follows a series of tasks. Once you have broken the students into groups, the students define the problem, analyze the problem, establish the criteria for evaluating solutions, propose solutions and take action.
Define the Problem: List all the characteristics of the problem by focusing on the symptoms, things affected, and resources or people related to defining the problem. In the end, pair down the thinking to a clear definition of the problem to be solved.
Analyze the Problem: Use the evidence you collected in step one to decide why the problem exists. This step is separate from defining the problem because when the steps are done together it is possible to prejudge the cause.
Establish Criteria: Set a clear objective for the solution. If the problem is too hard, break the objectives into two categories – musts and wants. Don’t discuss solutions yet, just what criteria a solution must meet.
Propose Solutions: Brainstorm as many different solutions as possible. Select the one that best meets the objectives you stated as a part of the criteria for a solution.
Take action: Write a plan for what to do including all resources you will need to complete the plan. If possible, implement the plan.
Creative Problem Solving uses the same basic focus, but the process is less geared towards solutions and more towards a focus on brainstorming. The focus is on creating ideas rather than solving a clear existing problem. Sometimes the problem is pre-defined, and the group must focus on understanding the definition rather than creating it.
Orientation: Similar to defining the problem, orientation also focuses on being sure the group is prepared to work together. The group might take the time to agree upon behaviors or ways of saying things in addition to setting the context and symptoms of the issues. The group generates a series of headings that group the topics they must address.
Preparation and Analysis: Decide which headings are relevant or irrelevant. The group focuses on similarities and differences between ideas and works on grouping them into like categories. The group asks how and why a lot, and focuses on the root cause of the problem in a way that is similar to analyzing the problem.
Brainstorm: The group generates as many potential solutions as possible. At this point, all ideas are considered to be good ones.
Incubation: Before deciding which solution is the best, the group should leave the problem for as much time as reasonable. Often several days or a week is ideal depending on the ages of the students. Leave enough time to develop distance but not long enough for students to lose the gist of their earlier work.
Synthesis and Verification: Start by establishing the criteria for a good solution, then look at all the brainstormed solutions and try to combine them to create the solution with the greatest numbers of positives and the smallest numbers of negatives.
Procedure
If you are working in a multi-grade room or on a project that involves a diverse group, problem solving is a great process for achieving consensus. You can also use parts of the process to help students challenge set thinking patterns.
Advantages and disadvantages of using a group to solve a problem:
The disadvantages of group problem solving can include:-
Competition
Most people working in a group unconsciously perceive the situation as competitive. This generates behaviour which is destructive and drains the creative energy of the group. For example, we often perceive disagreement with our ideas as a put-down. The natural reaction is to regain our self-esteem, often by trying to sabotage the ideas of those who disagreed with us. Instead of looking for ways to improve on their ideas we choose to destroy them.
Eager to express our own ideas, we may totally ignore what others are suggesting. Power-seekers may use ploys such as highlighting flaws in others' arguments, barbed questions and displays of expertise to show their supremacy. These types of behaviour create an atmosphere which is incompatible with effective problem solving.
Conformity .
There is a strong tendency for individuals in a group to want to conform to the consensus. This can be for a variety of reasons, including the need to feel liked, valued or respected, and tends to make people censor their ideas accordingly. The comparative status of the individuals present also has an important influence. Senior members often want to maintain their image of being knowledgeable, while junior members want to avoid appearing the inexperienced 'upstart'. Because agreement on ideas can be gained quickly in a group setting, groups tend to select and approve solutions quickly, without exploring all the possibilities.
Lack of objective direction
Most traditional meetings and group discussions convened to solve problems are ineffectively directed. Sometimes there is no effective leader to give direction to the discussion, with the result that it wanders aimlessly. Even when there is strong leadership, the group leader or chairman often exerts undue pressure on the direction and content of the discussion. In addition, the ideas aired during a meeting are not usually recorded, apart from the minutes and individual note-taking, with the result that many ideas are forgotten and cannot act as a constant stimulus to the discussion.
Time constraints
Group problem solving is a relatively slow process compared with working alone. It requires individuals to come together at an agreed time, usually for about one hour, and this can cause organisational problems as well as impatience amongst participants to 'get it over with' as quickly as possible.
The advantages of group problem solving can include:
Greater output.
Simply because of the number of people involved, each with differing experience, knowledge, points of view and values, a larger number and variety of ideas for solving a problem can be produced.
Cross fertilization
The exchange of ideas can act as a stimulus to the imagination, encouraging individuals to explore ideas they would not otherwise consider.
Reduced bias
The shared responsibility of a group in arriving at decisions can. encourage individuals to explore seemingly unrealistic ideas and to challenge accepted ways of doing things. Individual biases and prejudices can be challenged by the ,group, forcing the individual to recognise them. Group pressure can also encourage individuals to accept that change is needed.
Increased risk taking
Shared responsibility makes individuals more willing to take risks. The discussion of different points of view also helps the group to be more realistic in assessing the risks associated with particular courses of action.
Higher commitment
When goals are agreed it gives a common purpose to the group, within which individuals can gain a feeling of self-determination and recognition through their contribution. Individuals who have contributed to finding a solution feel a greater commitment to its successful implementation.
Improved communication
When .people who are affected by a problem or who will be involved in implementation are involved in finding a solution, they will know how and why that particular solution was chosen. Also, people with knowledge relevant to the problem can communicate that knowledge directly if they participate in solving the problem.
Better solutions
Groups of individuals can bring a broad range of ideas, knowledge and skills to bear on a problem. This creates a stimulating interaction of diverse ideas which results in a wider range and better quality of solutions.
conclusion
One more common teaching method is to teach information processing strategies. While it is often advisable to have students really understand the teaching methods and not just memorize facts, there are some cases when facts need to be memorized. Facts and concepts may also need to be grouped or organized in order to facilitate better understanding. Teachers can use various teaching methods to help students with memorization, or they can use graphic organizers, mind maps, story webs, or other ways to represent information visually.
There are many, many more teaching methods, but these are the most common. If the teacher finds the best teaching method for a particular group of students, the students are likely to learn more quickly and be more engaged. In addition, using a variety of teaching methods will keep children from being bored, and help them encounter the information in new and exciting ways.
References
Educational Technology -By N. Venkataiah
Educational Technology -By Jagannath Mohanty
Educational Technology -By D.D. Aggarwal
Essentials Of Educational Technology-By Mangal
Educational Technology: The Development of a Concept- By Alan Januszewski
Educational Technology -By R. P. Pathak
QUESTIONS
8- MARKS
1. What are different types of democratic strategies ? Explain and give illustration to any one of the strategy?
2. Differentiate discussion and project strategy ?
3. Differentiate discovery and role play?
4. Differentiate heurism and brain storming?
5. How does the democratic strategy is suitable for teaching and learning process ? Give example?
6. What is discussion strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of discussion?
7. What is discovery strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of discovery?
8. What is heurism strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of heurism?
9. What is project strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of project?
10. What is brainstorming strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of brain storming?
11. What is role play strategy of teaching? Explain about steps and advantages of role play
4-marks
1. Differentiate discussion and project strategy ?
2. Differentiate discovery and role play?
3. Differentiate heurism and brain storming?
4. what are disadvantages and advantages of discussion strategy of teaching?
5. what are disadvantages and advantages of discovery strategy of teaching?
6. what are disadvantages and advantages of heurism strategy of teaching?
7. what are disadvantages and advantages of project strategy of teaching?
8. what are disadvantages and advantages of brainstorming strategy of teaching ?
9. what are disadvantages and advantages of role play strategy of teaching?
10. Write principles of democratic strategy?
11. Explain discussion strategy of teaching?
12. Explain discovery strategy of teaching?
13. Explain heurism strategy of teaching?
14. Explain project strategy of teaching?
15. Explain brainstorming strategy of teaching ?
16. Explain role play strategy of teaching?
2-marks
1. Define discussion strategy of teaching?
2. Define discovery strategy of teaching?
3. Define heurism strategy of teaching?
4. Define project strategy of teaching?
5. Define brainstorming strategy of teaching ?
6. Define role play strategy of teaching?
7. what are the steps involved in discussion strategy of teaching?
8. what are the steps involved in discovery strategy of teaching?
9. what are the steps involved in heurism strategy of teaching?
10. what are the steps involved in project strategy of teaching?
11. what are the steps involved in brainstorming strategy of teaching ?
12. what are the steps involved in role play strategy of teaching?
13. What are different types of democratic strategies ?
14. Differentiate discussion and project strategy ?
15. Differentiate discovery and role play?
16. Differentiate heurism and brain storming?
17. Give two advantages of discussion strategy of teaching?
18. Give two advantages of discovery strategy of teaching?
19. Give two advantages of heurism strategy of teaching?
20. Give two advantages of project strategy of teaching?
21. Give two advantages of brainstorming strategy of teaching ?
22. Give two advantages of role play strategy of teaching?
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