By SANJAY KUMAR
INFORMATION PROCESSING FAMILY
Introduction
Teaching models
prescribe tested steps and procedures to effectively generate desired outcomes.
The number of emerging models and the ones that have emerged is uncountable.
Each emerging new model either explores a new approach or attempts a
modification of the conventional ones as to cater the uniqueness of
individuals. Most importantly, any teaching model should optimize learning
experiences to the needs of each learner by carefully exploring the learning
problems and offering tailored assistance.
Information processing models
This model has especially been
prepared for teacher education. Here, pupil teacher analyses learning problems
and reaches the solution one by one. Information processing refers to the way
people handle stimuli from environment, organize data, sense problems, generate
concepts and solutions to problems and employ verbal and non-verbal symbols.
Some information models are concerned with ability of the learner to solve
problems and thus emphasize productive thinking, others are concerned with
general intellectual ability.
Focus
The model aims at developing social
processes and making he principles understood by learners. In order to achieve
these activities special emphasis is given on the comprehension of facts,
events, laws and principles.
Syntax
Situations are created by the teacher
here to develop interactive activities. For this purpose teaching activities
are arranged in such a manner that pupils understand the concepts very easily.
E.g.
1. List of
teaching activities are prepared.
2. These
activities are classified into different groups
3. then these
teaching activities are exposed before the students one by one
4. Then
direction of teaching activities is determined.
5. The
directions and relations of various teaching activities are explained.
6. Then
conclusions are drawn on the basis of these explanations.
7. Then in order
to test the consequence of these activities, hypothesis is forulated.
8. Then these
hypotheses are explained. For this purpose, help is taken from facts and
relevant concepts.
9. Then
hypotheses are verified and generalization is arrived at.
10.Finally,
conclusions are practiced.
In this way, the
pupils come to understand facts and concepts very clearly.
Social System
Here students are given full freedom
to act in the class. Teacher also initiates his activities from the activities
of the students. He works in the class only as a guide or helper. Questions are
continuously asked in the class in order to maintain democratic environment.
Support System
Only objective type test is used here
to evaluate the comprehension ability and intellectual power of students.
Types of information processing model:
1. Inductive
thinking
2. Concept
Attainment model
3. Synectics
model
4. Advance
Organizer model
5. Scientific
Inquiry Method
INDUCTIVE THINKING
The ability to create concepts is
generally regarded as one of the basic thinking skills. The model presented
here is from the work of Hilda Taba names for concepts; and to explore ways of
becoming more skillful at discovering and organizing information and at
creating and testing hypotheses describing relationships among sets of data.
The model has been used in a wide variety of curriculum areas and with students
of all ages.
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT
This model, built around the
studies of thinking conducted by Bruner, Goodnow, and Austin (1967). It is
designed to help students learn concepts for organizing information and to help
them become more effective at learning concepts. It includes an efficient
method for presenting organized information from a wide range of areas of study
to students of every stage of development.
SYNECTICS MODEL:
Synectics is interesting
new approach to the development of creativity designed by William J.J. Gordon
and his associates. Synectics derived from Greek word mean “the joining
together of different and apparently irrelevant elements”. Synectics theory
applies to the integration of diverse individuals into a problem stating and
problem solving group. Synectics defines creative process as the mental
activity in problem stating and problem solving situations where artistic or
technical inventions are the result.
ADVANCE
ORGANIZERS
During the last twenty
years this model, formulated by David Ausubel (1963), has become one of the
most researched in the information-processing family. It is designed to provide
students with a cognitive structure for comprehending material presented
through lectures, readings, and other media. It has been employed with almost
every conceivable content and with students of every age. It can be easily
combined with other models-for example, when presentations are mixed with
inductive activity.
CONCEPT
ATTAINMENT MODEL (CAM)
CAM was developed by
J.S.Bruner, J.Goodrow and George Austine in 1956.The model emerged out of the
study of thinking process in human beings. It is based on the assertion that a
human being is endowed with the capacity to discriminate and to categorize
things in groups. This model is used for teaching concepts to the students. It
enables them to understand fully the similarities and relationship among
various things of the environment.
CONCEPT ATTAINMENT MODEL IN
TERMS OF ELEMENTS
Focus: The main focus of the model is to develop
inductive reasoning of the students. Bruner and his associates orient their
work for the description of a process by which the
Students
discriminate the attribute of the things, persons, events and place them into categories.
The students are also taught about the concept which is of great use to them in
order to live successfully in different life situations.
Syntax
Structure of the model has the following four
phases.
Presentation
of data
Analysis of
hypothesis
Formation of
hypothesis
Teacher
reaction
Rejection or
confirmation of hypothesis
Closure
Practice
Principle of reaction
Immediate check of wrong answers and
acceptance of right answers is a must.
Social System
The teaching
situation is moderately structured. The teacher has to control all actions of
the class-room, but reasonable freedom is given for discussion within different
phases of teaching.
Support system
The lessons
require concepts which can be arranged so that concept may be drawn from the
material.
Application
Concept attainment model is very useful in
teaching the concepts through inductive reasoning.
Merits of concept attainment model
1. It is a natural way of teaching and
learning.
2. It is helpful in developing the power of
imagination of the students.
3. It helps in the development of reasoning
power of the students.
4. It help students to analyse things
systematically.
5. It keeps students actively engaged in the
classroom activity
6. It helps in making the student good
observers.
7. It encourages the habit of self study in
the students.
8. It helps the learners to apply their
knowledge in different situations.
9. It keeps the student busy in the
classroom work.
Limitations
1. It makes high demand on the students as
well as teachers.
2. All the students of the class may not be
able to participate in the teaching-learning process
3. Some students, on account of their
shyness, fail to derive the requisite advantage of this model.
Illustration
Topic: Concept
of ‘proper noun’
Eg: Delhi – yes book – no (one positive and one negative
example)
Mysore – yes pencil – no
Effective use of the model
To be done in
small groups. This facilitates involvement of all students. But before dividing
into groups steps to be followed should be oriented it one leader in each
group. The teacher to visit and guide them. At the end all groups to meet
together.
SCIENTIFIC
INQUIRY MODEL
It was built by
J. Richard Suchman for developing scientific inquiry training skills in the
students. This model is based on the following beliefs of Suchman.
1. All knowledge is tentative. A scientist
generates a theory of principles. After sometime it may be pushed aside by a
new one.
2. Most of the
problems are amenable to several equally plausible explanations. There
is no one particular answer to a problem.
3. Inquiry is natural. All of us often inquire
when confronted with a problematic situation or puzzle.
4. An individual can be made amenable to the
process of inquiry. He can be made to learn to analyse his thinking strategies.
5. In addition to what is already known to an
individual, he may be taught the new strategies to enquire and explore things.
6. The
inquiry process is co-operative effort. It is always facilitated by the ‘give’
and take of ideas from colleagues.
Focus
Children are
curious by nature and this model attempts to satisfy their urge of curiosity by
providing systematic training in inquiry.
Syntax
It consists of
five phases:
Phase one: Encounter with the problem
1. Explaining inquiry procedures.
2. Presentation of the problem or puzzled event.
Phase two: Data gathering process (verification)
1. Verifying the nature of objective and conditions.
2. Verifying the occurrence of the problem.
Phase three: data gathering process (experimentation)
1. Isolating relevant variables
2. Hypothesizing and testing casual
relationships.
Phase four
Organizing, formulating an Explanation
Formulate rules or Explanations.
Phase five
analysis of the enquiry process
Analyze inquiry
strategy and develop more effective ones.
Principles of reaction
According to
Joyce and Wil (1978) the responding and reacting may be guided by the
following:
1. Framing questions in such a way that the
answers can be given in ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
2. Asking students to rephrase questions
properly.
3. Pointing out unvalidated statements like,
“We have not yet established that this is solid.”
4. Using the language of the inquiry
process.
5. Providing free intellectual environment
to the students.
6. Pressing students to make clear
statements of their theories and more support for their generalizations.
7. Encouraging interaction among students.
Social system
The inquiry training model can be
highly structured, with the teacher controlling the interaction and prescribing
the inquiry procedure. The norms of inquiry are cooperation, intellectual
freedom, and equality. Interaction among students should be encouraged. At every stage, the teacher is expected to respond in such a way as students may be
encouraged to initiate and pursue the inquiry.
Support System
Both the students and the teachers
need additional support. The teacher provides support to the student to develop
material. He himself requires support in the form of a set of confronting
materials, technical understanding of the intellectual processes and strategies
of inquiry and resource material bearing on the problem.
Application Context
This method is designed to provide
training to solve the problem in a systematic way. As observed by Weil and
Joyce, “the emphasis in this model is clearly on becoming aware of and mastering
the enquiry process, not on the content and explanation of any particular
problem situation. Although the model should also be enormously appealing and
effective as a model of acquiring and using information, the teacher cannot be
too concerned with subject matter coverage or correctness.”
Merits of inquiry teaching model
1. It helps in development of imagination
power of students.
2. It gives training to analyse things
systematically.
3. It helps in development of reasoning
power.
4. It provides a lot of training to students
to put suitable questions.
5. It imparts training to the students to go
deep into the problem.
6. It prepares the students for solving
various problems of life systematically.
7. It engages the continuous attention of
the teacher as well as the students
8. Students hardly can afford to be absent
minded.
Limitations
1. The model can work well only in the hands
of very intelligent and resourceful teachers.
2. An average teacher can hardly make use of
this model.
3. Shy students lag behind.
4. It puts a lot of premium on the speaking
ability of the students.
Example
It happened
about thousand years ago. A battle was fought between he armies of two kings.
King A had a very large army as compared with King B. king B himself commanded
the army. His army included trained horses. There was a unit of fighting
elephants in the army of King A. in the beginning, the army of King A had an
upper hand. The day became cloudy. It began to rain. The ground became
slippery. There was lightning in the sky. There was a strong storm. In spite of
initial gains, King A lost the battle.
Interaction in the class to find out
the reason of the defeat of King a may take the following form:
Student 1: was
the army of King A not adequately equipped with weapons?
Teacher: No
Student 2: was
the army not well-trained?
Teacher: No
Student 3: were
there dissentions in the army?
Teacher: no
Student 4: Was
the food supply short?
Teacher: no
Student 5: can
the elephants fight on a rainy day with the same strength and tactics as on an
ordinary day?
Teacher: no
Student 6: can
we compare the fighting spirit of the two armies – one commanded by a brave
king and the other by a commander
Teacher: yes
Student 7: will
not the army commanded by a brave king show more zeal?
Teacher: yes
In this way
students can be given inquiry training.
SYNECTICS MODEL
Synectics
is interesting new approach to the development of creativity designed by
William J.J. Gordon and his associates. Synectics derived from Greek word mean
“the joining together of different and apparently irrelevant elements”.
Synectics theory applies to the integration of diverse individuals into a
problem stating and problem solving group. Synectics defines creative process
as the mental activity in problem stating and problem solvingsituations where
artistic or technical inventions are the result.
Characteristics
of Gordon’s Model
* According to
this model creativity is important in everyday activities. Gordon’s model is
designed to increase problem solving , creative expression , empathy and
insight into social relations.
*Second, the
creative process is not at all mysterious . It can be described, and it is
possible to train persons directly to increase their creativity. (Traditionally
creativity is viewed as a mysterious innate and personal capacity)
*Third ,
creative invention is similar in all fields- the arts, the sciences,
engineering and is characterized by the same underlying intellectual processes.
*Gordon’s
fourth assumption is that individual and
group invention (creative thinking ) are very similar .Individuals and groups
generate ideas and products in much the same fashion.
In school
systems the main technique used is analogy. The child is lead into an ‘imaginary/ illogical world’ to see things
never seen before to express himself in novel ways, to approach problems from a
different angle which is entirely different from others as is perceived by the
mind’s eye through ‘fresh ways of thinking’. He has to express his ideas
clearly and also grasp ideas clearly and comprehensively.
Syntax:
Steps of the
Model to be followed in the Classroom
1. Describe the
topic
2. Create direct
analogies
3. Describe
personal analogies
4. Identify
compressed conflicts
5. Create new
direct analogy
6. Re-examine
the original topic
7.Evaluate
Social System:
The
model is moderately structure, with the teacher initiating the sequence and
guiding the use of the operational mechanisms. He also helps the students
intellectualize their mental processes. The students have freedom in their
open-ended discussion as the engage in metaphorical problem solving. Norms of
co-operation ‘platy of fancy’ and intellectual and emotional equality are
essential to establishing the setting fro creative problem solving.
Principles of Reaction:
The instructor notes the extent to
which individuals seem to be tied to regularized patterns of thinking and he or
she tries to induce psychological states to generate creative response. The
more the problem is difficult to solve it is necessary for the teacher to
accept far fetched analogies so that they develop fresh perspectives on
problems.
Support system:
The
group needs most of all facilitation by a leader competent. In case of
scientific problems a laboratory in which it can build models and other devices
to make problems concerns and to permit practical invention to take place.
Application:
Step I : The teacher asks the students
to describe a given topic. This can be done orally or the students can write
down the topic. Descriptive words are then listed on the board.
Example: The topic is ‘Feelings’
Descriptive
words: love, hate, anger, sadness, guilt, happy, remorse, joy, satisfaction
etc.
Step II Students
examine the descriptive words and form analogies between the words and an
unrelated category such as plants, animals or machines. After all students have
given an analogy, the best one is voted on by the class.
Example: Think
of a plant that reminds you of the listed words.
Analogies: ‘A rose reminds me of Love’
‘ Jasmine reminds me of
Valentines’ Day and happiness’
‘Lily reminds me of
death and sadness.’
Step III: The
teacher asks students to think about how he/she would feel to be the object
chosen in Step II. Students must also tell why they have that particular
feeling.
Students
responses are recorded.
Example: How
would it feel to be a ‘Rose’?
Responses:
alive, happy, safe, smelled, plucked, ignored, curdled, held on, dead,
recognized, good, loved, bad, crushed.
Step IV: The
students are asked to review their responses to find pairs of words which seem
to ‘fight’ or are in opposition to one another.
The class votes
for the pair of words that represent the best compressed-conflict.
Example:
ignored- loved , good- bad, happy- sad, alive-dead, held on- crushed
Step V: The
teacher asks for another category for a direct analogy and the class must think
of example of that category which are best described by the compressed category
chosen in Step IV.
Example: “Animal”
is the analogy, “alive- dead’ are the characteristics.
Direct
Analogies: lion, dog, cat, bear, dinosaur etc.
Step VI: The
class talks about the original topic by comparing the last direct analogy to
the original topic New images are created.
Example
“Feelings are like lions. They are alive but, sometimes appear to be dead.”
“Feelings are like Roses and Lilies. Sometimes they make you happy and some
times they make you sad”.
Step VII:
Students evaluate the writing done before and after the model to see if more
creative insight has been added. The must also analyse the thought process
involved.
Merits:
1. develops creativity
2. develops problem solving ability
3. ensures co-operation
4. concern for fellow being
Demerits:
1. expensive in case of scientific problem
as it requires laboratory.
2. Competent teacher to guide
3. conducive environment
ADVANCE
ORGANIZER MODEL OF TEACHING
An advance organizer is a cognitive
strategy proposed by Ausubel in his Subsumption Theory, which allows the
learner to recall and transfer prior knowledge to the new information being
presented. This theory is based on the idea that learning is facilitated, if
the learner can find meaning in the new information. If a connection can be made
between the new information and previous knowledge, the learning experience
will become more meaningful to the learner. Therefore, the new information will
be learned.
The advance
organizer is not a strategy used by the learner, but rather an instructional
strategy used by the teacher. In essence, the advance organizer is a brief,
general speech prepared by the teacher, before presenting the new material, to
introduce the new lesson. In designing the advance organizer recall of previous
knowledge relevant to the new knowledge is important. It should provide a
bridge that links the known to the unknown, by including an abstract outline of
the new information and a restatement of old knowledge. Theoretically, this
will encourage transfer and application of old knowledge, to make the new
knowledge more meaningful to the learner. In SLA advance organizers could be
used to help the learner categorize new learning, in relation to their native
language. The learner could then distinguish similarities and differences in
the target language and their native language, thus carrying out a cognitive
comparison between deviant and correct target language, forms or utterances.
This may even reduce learners' errors as conscious attention is focused on
these differences and similarities. The use of advance organizers does fit in
with current teaching approaches, particularly with the communicative language
approach. For in this approach, learners negotiate for meaning and the teacher
acts as a facilitator of the communication process.
Types of advance organizer:
Ausuble labelled two types of advance
organizers depending on the learner’s degree of familiarity with the material
which is as follows:
1. Expository
Advance Organizers:
They provide
general model of class relationship as a general subsumer for a new class,
sub-class, and species before more limited subsumer are provided for the
particular sub-class or species. These are used when the material to be learnt
is complete.
2. Comparative
Advance Organizer:
They are used
most with relatively familiar materials. They are designed to integrate new
concepts with basically similar concepts existing the cognitive structure, yet
they are also designed to discriminate between the old and new concepts in
order to prevent confusion caused by their similarity.
Syntax:
It consists of
three phases:
Phase 1: Presentation of Advance Organizer:
During this phase, first of al the
objectives are explained and clarified and after which the advance organizer is
presented.
Phase 2: Presentation of Learning Task or Material
At this stage, the learning material
is presented. This is presented through lectures, films, scripts, discussion, experiences;
extra reading material etc. the learning is organized in logical order.
Attempts are made to maintain motivation and interest.
Phase 3: strengthening Cognitive Organization
At this stage, the cognitive material
is strengthened. The purpose of this stage it to anchor new material with old.
This ism integrative reconciliation is brought about. This is brought about by
asking the students to prepare the summary of major attributes of new material,
repeat definitions, and ask students to differentiate the closely related
subject.
Social System:
In this model, the teacher retains
control of the intellectual structure, as it is necessary continually to relate
the learning material to the organizers and to help students differentiate new
material from previously learnt material. In phase, three, however, the
learning situation is ideally much more interactive, with students initiating
many questions and comments.
Principles of Reaction:
The teacher’s solicited or unsolicited
responses to the learner’s reactions are to be guided for the purpose of
clarifying the meaning of the new learning material, differentiating it from
and reconciling it with existing knowledge, making it personally relevant to
the student, and helping to promote a critical approach to knowledge.
Support System:
Well organized material is the
critical support requirement of this model. The effectiveness of the advance organizer depends on an
integral and appropriate relationship between the conceptual organizer and the
content.
Application:
1. It is
specially useful to structure extended curriculum sequences or course and to
instruct students systematically the key ideas of a field.
2. It increases
the learner’s grasp of factual information linked to and explained by the key
ideas.
3. The model can
also be shaped to teach the skills of effective reception learning.
4. Whenever
ideas or information needs to be presented, renewed, or clarified, the advance
organizer is useful model.
How to Use:
Ask students to compare and contrast the
new content based on what they know. For example, what can they tell about its
color, shape, smell, feel, or taste? Demonstrate by using a related
determinant. For example, use baseball to teach cricket, or ping pong to teach
tennis.
Give a scenario and ask students to infer
rules based on their current knowledge.
Have students identify the
characteristics of a known quantity and then relate it to the new idea/concept.
For example, offer renderings of different types of geometric forms before
discussing their individual likenesses and differences.
Identify a problem and ask for a reason
why it may occur (before teaching the reason). For example, you might discuss
the origins of a war before describing its major battles.
Merits:
1. meaningful assimilation of information
and ideas.
2. it nurtures an interest in a inquiry and
precise habits of thinking.
3. has wide applicability to different
curriculum areas.
Demerits:
1. time consuming
2. competent teacher
3. all concepts cannot be taught in this
manner
INDUCTIVE THINGING
It is a skill that is developed by three teaching
strategies
First is Concept Formation (the basic teaching
strategy)
Second is Interpretation of data and
Third is Application of Principles
This is developed by Hilda Taba.
CONCEPT FORMATION
It involves (1) identifying and enumerate
the data relevant to a topic or a problem, (2) grouping these items into
categories whose members have common attributes, and (3) developing labels for
the categories.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA
It is built around the mental operations
such as interpreting, inferring, and generalizing.
APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES
The third stage is of applying
principle to explain new phenomena ( predicting consequences from
conditions that have been establish, such as predicting which countries have
similar interest that might affect how they would vote on relevant issues in
the United Nations Assembly).
SYNTEX
It has three strategies and every strategies has some
phases
Strategy one:
Concept formation
Phase one: Enumeration and listing
Phase two: Grouping
Phase three: Labeling, Categorization
Strategy two: interpretation of data
Phase Four: Identifying Critical relationship
Phase Five: Exploring Relationship
Phase six: Making Inferences
Strategy three: Application of principles
Phase seven: Predicting Consequences, Explaining
Unfamiliar Phenomena, and Hypothesizing
Phase eight: Explaining and/or Supporting the
Prediction and Hypothesis
Phase Nine: Verifying the Prediction
SOCIAL SYSTEM
For all the three strategies, the atmosphere of
classroom is cooperative, with a good deal of pupil activity The model has high to
moderate structure.It is
cooperative, but the teacher is the initiator and controller of
activities.
PRINCIPLE OF REACTION
The
teachers’ primary mental task in the course of the strategies is to moniter how
the students are processing information and then to use appropriate eliciting
questions. The important task for teacher is to sense the students’ readiness
for new experiences and new cognitive activity with which to assimilate and use
those experiences.
SUPPORT SYSTEM
Students
need raw data to organize and analyze. The teachers’ job is to help them to
process the data in increasingly complex ways and , at the same time, to
increase the general capacities of their
systems for processing data
Conclusion
Whatever
be the model of teaching the main objective is to reach the objective of
teaching. The more structured/planned the teaching is, the result is more
effective. All these models are supporters for a teacher to present well in the
class. Doing so his/her efficiency increases in teaching. It helps in gaining
confidence.
References
1. Educational
Technology: Teaching Learning – Dr. Y.K. Singh, Dr. T.K. Sharma, Dr. Brijesh
Upadhaya
2. Models of
Teaching – Theory and Practice – Mujibul Hasan Siddiqui and Mohd. Sharif Khan
3. Joyce, B.
& Calhoun, E. (1996). Creating Learning Experiences: The Role of
Instructional Theory and Research. Alexandria, VA: Association for Curriculum
Development and Supervision.
4. Joyce, B.,
Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2004). Models of Teaching. 7th ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
5.
www.netnet.org/instructors/design/goalsobjectives/advance.htm
6.
www.scribd.com/doc/.../
7.
www.csun.edu/education/ctl/
8.
www.ciser.ttu.edu/.../
9.
edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Advance_Organizer
10. NET/SLET book series by Gupta
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